Instructional Systems Design

At its simplest, the goal of Instructional Systems Design (ISD) is to improve human performance. ISD is based on the premise that learning should not occur in a haphazard way, but should be developed in accordance with orderly processes, be specifically tailored to the target audience, and have measurable outcomes. As the field of learning has grown, ISD and its applications have evolved through practice as well as through research and expansion of theories. Many ISD models have been created. As the field of instructional design continues to grow, new models (e.g., Rothwell and Kazanas) are emerging, which continue to emphasize a systems approach to design and now, more than ever, recognize the importance of non-instructional interventions to improve human performance.

Regardless of the model employed, ISD must include the following phases:

• Analysis: Determine what is to be learned, by whom, with what existing skills.

• Design: Map out how learning is to be presented, practiced, remediated, and tested.

• Development: Author and produce effective, high-quality materials.

• Implementation: Plan for and install the project in the real world.

• Evaluation: Collect qualitative and quantitative data about the adequacy of the intervention.

Thus, ISD consists of analyzing what is to be learned, planning an intervention that establishes the conditions for learning, and producing and refining instructional or non-instructional interventions until the specified performance objectives are met. However, PNCCSI's in-house instructional systems designers understand that ISD is not a lock-step set of procedures to be used without modification or elaboration.

PNCCSI's approach to ISD encompasses the development of instructional materials and the identification and implementation of non-instructional solutions to employee performance challenges. Examples of non-instructional solutions include the development of an embedded performance support system, redesigning the job itself, changing the reward system, or producing job aids.

Below is a summary of PNCCSI's in-house capability to apply ISD principles and processes to design and develop instructional materials, including alternative learning media. This section explains how PNCCSI's corporate structure, project management, and professional staff qualifications contribute to full performance of the ISD process.
 

Analysis

Analysis is the first phase of every performance improvement effort. Typically, analysis begins with the identification of a performance problem or gap between current and desired performance. PNCCSI's systematic approach to instructional design involves several types of analyses, including needs analysis, job/task analysis, and instructional analysis.

Needs Analysis. A needs analysis involves getting the answers to specific questions that define the precise nature of the performance problem. At PNCCSI, we work closely with our clients and subject matter experts to ensure that the correct questions are asked and sufficient background information is obtained. During the needs analysis, our instructional designers conduct interviews, administer surveys, and/or perform observations.

Job/Task Analysis. Upon completion of the needs analysis, a job/task analysis should be conducted. Our instructional designers begin the job/task analysis by identifying the general topics or duties of the job, then defining the tasks required to perform that job effectively. The job tasks are further narrowed down by the identification of task elements or steps.

Instructional Analysis. Upon completion of the job/task analysis, PNCCSI's instructional designers perform an instructional analysis to accomplish the following:

• Determine which tasks will be the object of instruction. The job/task analysis may determine non-instructional solutions for some tasks, such as a performance support system. Consequently, training may not be needed for all job tasks. In addition, limits on resources (such as time and money) may require some trade-offs. In these cases, we help our clients set priorities for instructional development and identify options for non-instructional interventions.

• Identify prerequisite capabilities that support learning of each task. To identify prerequisite skills and knowledge for a task, what the learner must know to perform the task must be precisely identified. As each level of skill sets is identified, PNCCSI continues the analysis process to determine the level of performance appropriate for the task and target audience.

• Evaluate the capabilities of the target audience. This step determines which of the prerequisites were acquired previously by the target audience and have yet to be learned. The result sets the entry level for the course, defining what type of instruction is needed to achieve the desired performance outcomes.

Throughout the Analysis Phase, PNCCSI's senior designers oversee all of the steps performed to ensure that the instructional designers obtain the information that they need to design the best product for the client. The result of the Analysis Phase is a detailed list of tasks to be trained, and a determination of the most suitable instructional medium for the training of each task.


Design
 

Analysis serves as the foundation for the Design Phase. This Phase of the ISD process is performed to determine the learning objectives -- both knowledge- and performance-based. It is also important to identify how the learner will know if the objectives have been met and what measures will be used. What interventions will enable the learner to achieve the objectives and what instructional strategies are appropriate must be determined. In addition, it is important to select the most appropriate media and methods in light of the objectives to be trained. Finally, it is important to visualize how the instruction will "look and feel" -- to create the concept of the instruction. Once an instructional design concept is developed, PNCCSI's instructional designers evaluate the design in terms of its cost-effectiveness for the clients' requirements and constraints. When the cost-effectiveness criteria are satisfied, a design document is developed and delivered to the client.

Develop Learning Objectives. Objectives make clear what evidence of learning is required or how learning will be measured. Objectives are used to translate the tasks and content generated in the task and instructional analyses into specific descriptions of observable and measurable behavior. Objectives set out what is to be learned. Criterion-referenced tests and instruction are developed based on these objectives and are designed to bring about the learning.

Develop Instructional Strategy. Once the objectives and tests have been defined, PNCCSI develops the overall instructional strategy to ensure mastery of the objectives, as measured by the tests. Common instructional strategies include introduction, presentation of content, interaction and feedback, guided practice, review and summary, proficiency testing, remediation, and content mastery.

To ensure mastery of the new skills, PNCCSI develops instruction that is based on and augments the learners' existing skills, through the use of job-relevant tasks. PNCCSI's instructional strategies are developed to ensure that instruction meets the below requirements:

• Involves Active Learning: Learning is not a passive process where students merely listen to a lecture, watch a demonstration, or read a textbook. Rather, the outcomes of the Design Phase of ISD are a set of job-relevant learning tasks that require active response.

• Is Job Relevant: Because the work PNCCSI typically performs is aimed at improving job performance, the instruction must help students transfer learning to the job. This is accomplished by replicating situations that allow active practice of the specific job tasks and behaviors to be learned, as they should be performed in the job setting.

In creating an instructional design, PNCCSI employs our knowledge of the characteristics of the adult learner. Adult learning research reveals that the below key characteristics result in a satisfied l earner.

• Meaningful: Learners are able to relate what they are learning to what they already know.

• Rewarding: The course must be worthwhile for their job performance.
  Efficient: Use of time is important to adult learners.

• Involving: Adult learners want to be valued participants in the learning process.

•  Relevant: The instruction must be targeted to the learners.

• Accurate: Even minor errors can disillusion adult learners regarding the entire course.

• Controllable: Courseware should allow learners to learn at their own pace, skip content they have mastered, or repeat and practice material with which they are having difficulty.

• Flexible: Training often happens during breaks and when personnel can spare time. Instruction must support leaving to return later and be able to pick right up where the lesson was interrupted.

Media Selection. Another important step in the Design Phase is media selection. Media are the means by which information is presented and experiences are shared. Media decisions can precede, follow, or accompany decisions about the instructional strategy to be employed. During the media selection, PNCCSI considers the stability of the content, time available for development, budget, and type of learning to occur (skill development, knowledge, and attitude). PNCCSI's instructional designers are well versed in the wide variety of alternative media; we offer our clients unbiased advice.

Develop Design Document. When the Design Phase is completed, PNCCSI documents the decisions made at each step in a Design Document. This document contains the criterion-based objectives, a content outline, a hierarchy of learning or a flowchart of the possible paths through non-hierarchical instruction, selected instructional and learning strategies, media selection results, a list and description of non-instructional materials that support the instruction, and a proposed interface design. We believe a solid design document is the foundation upon which all-subsequent development efforts are built.

Prototype. When the approach employs technology for delivery (e.g., technology-based training or interactive video tele-training) or any untried, innovative approach, PNCCSI recommends that a prototype be developed to evaluate the approach. Development of a prototype early in the process allows any problems to be addressed, allows the client to see what the end product will look like, and ensures that the course will meet and even expectations.


Development

The inputs to the Development Phase are the performance-based objectives, instructional strategies, selected media, course design, and prototype from the Design Phase. These inputs serve as the "blueprint" for subsequent development. In the Development Phase, the materials are authored, reviewed, produced, and validated. The specific activities to be carried out during development will, of course, depend on the instructional media to be produced. Development involves the successful integration of multiple disciplines to bring the instruction to life.

For example, the development of high-end, multimedia-based training involves a team of instructional designers, subject matter experts, graphic artists, systems analysts, computer programmers, and video production personnel. PNCCSI works closely with the client during all steps of the development process to ensure that the materials being developed are in accordance with client expectations.

PNCCSI holds formal and informal interim reviews to discuss work in progress. This may involve reviewing graphics as they are developed, discussing content as it is written, and obtaining clarification on technical issues. At PNCCSI, we partner with our clients to educate them about, and involve them closely in, the development process. We consider the client to be an integral member of the project team. By obtaining approvals and buy-in early, we ensure the client's satisfaction upon delivery.

Developmental Validation. Validation is the term PNCCSI employs for our on-going, formative evaluation of materials that are under development. Once draft materials are completed to a point where they can be tested, they are tried out in a series of evaluations. First, PNCCSI conducts an in-house evaluation by having a designated quality assurance person, who was not involved in development, review the materials in a simulated work environment. For instructor- or leader-led materials, this may include conducting a "dry run" with one of PNCCSI's instructors and PNCCSI employees acting as students. For multimedia, someone may take the course, use the on-line help, or perform work simulation exercises just as they would in the field. Any problems encountered are then corrected. Finally, PNCCSI's senior designers review all materials to ensure that PNCCSI's product is complete before it is delivered to the client.

The next level of evaluation is typically called a "small group tryout," pilot, or beta test. PNCCSI works with the client to conduct this tryout under conditions that simulate those of the actual instructional environment, using students representative of the final target audience. Development ends when the validation demonstrates that the instruction meets the performance standards specified by the objectives, and the client accepts the final product.


Implementation

As solutions to performance problems become increasingly sophisticated, implementation is no longer a process that can be taken for granted. The key to successful implementation often revolves around seemingly insignificant issues of printing, duplicating, labeling, shipping, and equipment configuration -- for the need of a $2 audio cable, a multimedia course won't operate successfully. The first step in the Implementation Phase is to determine the conditions (who, what, when, where) under which the course will be offered or the solution implemented. This is done by reviewing the data collected during the life of the project, reviewing the lessons-learned about field conditions from the validation, and conferring with people who are knowledgeable about conditions at the work or training site. The outcome of this step is a definition of the guidance and support needed to ensure successful implementation. Depending upon the size and complexity of the project, guidance may take one of the below forms:

• Job Aids

• Instruction Manuals

• Train-the-Trainer Instruction

• On-Site Briefing or Workshop

• A Support System or Help Desk

• On-Line Help

In developing the implementation materials, PNCCSI provides the client with the detailed procedures and practices necessary to implement and administer the instruction or other performance support solution. We develop a plan to maintain the quality of the materials, which may include the following:

• Reviewing test results and performance data for learning problems.

• Conferring with instructors and/or facilitators to uncover the cause of any learning problems.

• Recommending corrective action, as appropriate.

• Revising materials, if possible, given the resources at hand.

• Documenting problems, diagnosis, and resolutions encountered during implementation.

We routinely brief and/or train clients' personnel regarding their responsibilities, and we create support systems to enable them to handle unanticipated problems. When high-tech media are used (e.g., for distance learning), support is also provided for personnel responsible for the hardware and software.

The Implementation Phase ends when the client is prepared to carry out the tasks required to provide and support the product and administer the materials independently.


Evaluation

The Evaluation Phase is driven by a search for the answers to the following questions: Have we solved the problem? How do we know? What is the impact? What needs to change? What can we continue to improve? PNCCSI works closely with our clients to ensure these questions are addressed. Our role in summative evaluation is to help our clients establish a system to obtain feedback on an on-going basis. If the client has mechanisms in place for evaluation of training, our role is to assist the client to utilize this system or to improve on it.

During the Evaluation Phase, PNCCSI's instructional designers create a summative evaluation plan. Summative evaluation collects information in the below two main areas:

Instructional Effectiveness. Instructional effectiveness pertains to maintaining the quality of the course over time. Information is gathered in order to make determinations about the course's effectiveness in continued use. Measures are taken periodically to answer the questions: Is the content still current? Are standards being maintained? Are the learning objectives still being met? Are the materials being used correctly? In today's changing workplace, evaluation must be an on-going process.

Organizational Impact. The goal of ISD is to solve the performance problems identified by the needs analysis. Once the performance solution has been implemented, summative evaluation determines how well the problem was solved, and to evaluate the value of the solution. The assessment methods depend on the solution that was employed. At this point, the ISD process often comes full circle -- this is particularly true in times of great change and innovation. New requirements are identified during the evaluation that must be addressed with an analysis to specify the optimal intervention, which restarts the ISD process.